This article will cover the following points:

·       What is perfectionism?

·       Why are we perfectionists?

·       The positive side of perfectionism

·       The negative side of perfectionism

What is perfectionism?

Perfectionism is a personality trait, usually referred to as the need to achieve perfection [10] or setting excessively high personal standards [7]. However, there is no one simple definition of perfectionism due to its multidimensional nature.

For example, the researcher Hamachek [11] argued that there is a difference between normal perfectionists and neurotic perfectionists, and this difference lies within the concern over one’s mistakes or performance. While normal perfectionists are more lenient and accepting of minor mistakes, neurotic perfectionists believe that their standards have not been met even when they make only tiny mistakes. Therefore, it seems that neurotic perfectionists are more motivated by the fear of failure rather than need for achievement. Another related aspect is a sense of doubt over one’s performance [11]. This means that perfectionists often tend to feel like they had not completed the task satisfactorily. Lastly, perfectionism is sometimes also characterised in terms of overemphasis on precision and order [15].

Furthermore, the researchers Hewitt and Flett [14] distinguished between three dimensions of perfectionism:

• Self-oriented perfectionism means imposing unrealistic standards on oneself
• Other-oriented perfectionism means imposing unrealistic standards on other people and expecting them to strive for perfection
• Socially prescribed perfectionism refers to the belief that others expect us to be perfect and that they will be highly critical of our performance if we do not meet their standards.

Why are we perfectionists?

There is no clear explanation as to why someone is a perfectionist. Perfectionists are internally driven to perform to high standards, and this could be a result of many different factors.

Some researchers believe that perfectionism might be related to parental expectations and evaluations [11]. Here, perfectionists were raised in an environment in which love and approval were conditional. That means that parents set certain standards for their child and they only showed love when these standards were met. Failure to uphold these standards would lead to a lack of love and rejection from parents. As a result, these children might have associated love and acceptance with performing to high standards. However, this is not fully agreed upon, as not every child that grows up in such an environment grows up to be a perfectionist, and not everyone who is a perfectionist necessarily has strict parents. 

Moreover, perfectionism was found to be associated with the obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) [10]. People who suffer from OCD, often, but not always, display perfectionist tendencies. However, it is important to note that no causal link has been established, meaning that there is no evidence that OCD causes perfectionism or vice versa.

Furthermore, societal pressure might also contribute to perfectionism. There is an increasing amount of pressure put on people to strive for academic and professional success [17]. Researchers Curran and Hill [3] conducted a study in which they looked at the prevalence of perfectionism among college students from 1989 to 2016, and whether the prevalence coincided with societal changes. Their results showed that levels of all three dimensions of perfectionism have linearly increased, meaning that younger generations are more demanding of themselves and of others, and they believe that others expect them to perform to high standards. Moreover, students also perceive perfectionism as a socially desirable trait [19].

The positive side of perfectionism

There is a consensus among researchers that perfectionism consists of at least two facets. One of these facets is referred to as positive striving perfectionism or adaptive (healthy) perfectionism [20]. Some of the characteristics of healthy perfectionism include striving for high but achievable goals, or devoting your time and energy to tasks that match your strengths[22].

Some research suggests that perfectionism can have a positive effect on creativity. Researchers Wigert and colleagues [23] found a positive link between adaptive perfectionism and various aspects of creativity, such as perceiving oneself as creative and the quality of one’s ideas. Perfectionists tend to come up with high quality solutions which can be explained by the high standards they set for themselves.

Additionally, positive striving perfectionism has also been linked to higher levels of conscientiousness and motivation [5]. These can in turn be beneficial motivators for higher engagement at work [21].

Lastly, in some cases perfectionism can also be beneficial to physical health. Researcher Fry and colleagues [8] investigated the link between perfectionism and mortality among people with Type 2 diabetes. They found that people with high perfectionism scores had 26% lower risk of death than people with low perfectionism scores, suggesting that strict adherence to rules and a healthy diet might actually be beneficial for general well-being.

 The negative side of perfectionism

Unfortunately, perfectionism also has a negative side. This second facet of perfectionism is referred to as evaluative concerns perfectionism or maladaptive (unhealthy) perfectionism [20]. Some of the aspects of perfectionism that can be considered unhealthy are: always competing to be the best to avoid feeling like a failure; feeling that all mistakes are a catastrophe; always sticking to one strategy when completing tasks instead of trying new ones; setting excessively high standards and never meeting them [22].

Researchers Dunkley and colleagues found that unhealthy perfectionism can have a negative effect on self-esteem [4]. Essentially, perfectionists who fail to meet their standards often feel like a failure.

Furthermore, unhealthy perfectionism can lead to poorer mental health and negative affect. Specifically, unhealthy perfectionists are more likely to suffer from depression and anxiety disorders compared to healthy perfectionists or non-perfectionists [1, 12]. Also, self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism has also been linked to eating disorders [9]. The link between perfectionism and suicide risk has also been investigated: unhealthy perfectionism might be a risk factor for suicide [6] but the exact nature of this relationship must be investigated further.

Perfectionism can also impact work or academic performance. Research shows that socially prescribed perfectionism might contribute to work-related stress and burnout [2] due to the feeling that one must constantly meet certain standards. Indeed, maladaptive perfectionists tend to experience higher stress levels and burnouts [16]. Finally, another negative consequence of  perfectionism is workaholism [18]. Because self-oriented perfectionists tend to be more motivated, they might eventually become workaholics.

In conclusion,

Perfectionism is a complex concept primarily characterised by the constant striving for perfection and high standards. The reasons behind perfectionism are diverse. Some suggest that it is a result of the environment we grow up in while others link it to societal factors. Moreover, there are two sides of perfectionism. In some cases it can sometimes be beneficial for our creativity, physical health or work engagement, but it can also have detrimental effects on our mental health and can lead to academic and professional burnout.

Do you consider yourself a perfectionist? If so, do you believe that it is beneficial for you or have you also experienced some negative consequences? We are curious to know!

Some extra resources:

1. Article: ‘How to overcome perfectionism’ https://www.anxietycanada.com/articles/how-to-overcome-perfectionism/

2. Podcast: ‘Popping Perfectionism’ - talks about the negative aspects of perfectionism and how to cope with it

https://open.spotify.com/show/36QJTdNdnLKKHJ9T9yis1x?si=5LjjcZR7Rx67nf3Jcjp63Q

3. Short video: ‘The problem with perfectionism’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g8pti-Swh_E

4. Ted Talk: ‘Perfectionism Holds Us Back’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tAgQkL7bIYQ

References

1. Bieling, P. J., Israeli, A. L., & Antony, M. M. (2004). Is perfectionism good, bad, or both? Examining models of the perfectionism construct. Personality and individual differences, 36(6), 1373-1385. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00235-6

2. Childs, J. H., & Stoeber, J. (2012). Do you want me to be perfect? Two longitudinal studies on socially prescribed perfectionism, stress and burnout in the workplace. Work & Stress, 26(4), 347-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2012.737547

3. Curran, T., & Hill, A. P. (2019). Perfectionism is increasing over time: A meta-analysis of birth cohort differences from 1989 to 2016. Psychological Bulletin, 145(4), 410–429. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000138

4. Dunkley, D. M., Berg, J. L., & Zuroff, D. C. (2012). The role of perfectionism in daily self‐esteem, attachment, and negative affect. Journal of Personality, 80(3), 633-663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00741.x

5. Dunkley, D. M., Blankstein, K. R., & Berg, J. L. (2012). Perfectionism dimensions and the five–factor model of personality. European Journal of Personality, 26(3), 233-244. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.829

6. Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Heisel, M. J. (2014). The destructiveness of perfectionism revisited: Implications for the assessment of suicide risk and the prevention of suicide. Review of General Psychology, 18(3), 156-172. https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fgpr0000011

7. Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive therapy and research, 14(5), 449-468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967

8. Fry, P. S., & Debats, D. L. (2011). Perfectionism and other related trait measures as predictors of mortality in diabetic older adults: A six-and-a-half-year longitudinal study. Journal of Health Psychology, 16(7), 1058-1070. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1359105311398684

9.     García-Villamisar, D., Dattilo, J., & Del Pozo, A. (2012). Depressive mood, eating disorder symptoms, and perfectionism in Female College students: A mediation analysis. Eating Disorders, 20(1), 60–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10640266.2012.635569

10.  GoodTherapy (May 2019). Perfectionism. Retrieved March 1, 2021 from https://www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/issues/perfectionism

11.  Hamachek, D. E. (1978). Psychodynamics of normal and neurotic perfectionism. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior, 15(1), 27–33.

12.  Handley, A. K., Egan, S. J., Kane, R. T., & Rees, C. S. (2014). The relationships between perfectionism, pathological worry and generalised anxiety disorder. BMC Psychiatry, 14(1), 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-98.

13.  Healthline. (July 2016). Perfectionism. Retrieved on March 1, 2021 from https://www.healthline.com/health/perfectionism#symptoms

14.  Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(3), 456–470. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.456

15.  Hollander, M. H. (1965). Perfectionism. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 6, 94-103.

16.  Moate, R. M., Gnilka, P. B., West, E. M., & Bruns, K. L. (2016). Stress and burnout among counselor educators: Differences between adaptive perfectionists, maladaptive perfectionists, and nonperfectionists. Journal of Counseling & Development, 94(2), 161-171. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12073

17.  Psychology Today. Perfectionism. Retrieved March 1, 2021 from https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/basics/perfectionism

18.  Stoeber, J., Davis, C. R., & Townley, J. (2013). Perfectionism and workaholism in employees: The role of work motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(7), 733-738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.06.001

19.  Stoeber, J., & Hotham, S. (2013). Perfectionism and social desirability: Students report increased perfectionism to create a positive impression. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(5), 626-629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.04.023

20.  Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. Personality and social psychology review, 10(4), 295-319. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2

21.  Swider, B., Harari, D., Breidenthal, A. P., & Steed, L. B. (December 2018). The pros and cons of perfectionism, according to research. Retrieved March 1, 2021 from https://hbr.org/2018/12/the-pros-and-cons-of-perfectionism-according-to-research

22.  Szymanski, J. (October 2011). Perfectionism: Healthy or hurtful? Retrieved March 1, 2021 from https://hbr.org/2011/10/is-perfectionism-helping-or-hu

23.  Wigert, B., Reiter-Palmon, R., Kaufman, J. C., & Silvia, P. J. (2012). Perfectionism: The good, the bad, and the creative. Journal of research in personality, 46(6), 775-779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.08.007